Crispr enabled multiplexed genome engineering

ABSTRACT

Described herein are methods and vectors for rational, multiplexed manipulation of chromosomes within open reading frames (e.g., in protein libraries) or any segment of a chromosome in a cell or population of cells, in which various CRISPR systems are used.

RELATED APPLICATION

This application is continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/630,909, filed Jun. 22, 2017, which is continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/116,616, filed Aug. 4, 2016, which is a national stage entry of International Application No. PCT/US2015/015476, filed Feb. 11, 2015, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. § 119 of U.S. provisional application 61/938,608 filed Feb. 11, 2014, the entire teachings of each of which are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Rational manipulation of large DNA constructs is a central challenge to current synthetic biology and genome engineering efforts. In recent years, a variety of technologies have been developed to address this challenge and increase the specificity and speed with which mutations can be generated. Additionally, adaptive mutations are a central driver of evolution, but their abundance and relative contribution to cellular phenotypes are poorly understood even in the most well-studied organisms. This can be attributed in large part to the technical challenges associated with observing and reconstructing these genotypes and correlating their presence with the phenotype of interest. For example, methods of genome editing that rely on random mutagenesis lead to complex genotypes consisting of many mutations, the relative contribution of each of which is difficult to deconvolute. Moreover, epistatic interactions between alleles are difficult to assign due to lack of information regarding the individual mutations.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Clustered Regularly Interspersed Short Palindromic Repeats (CRISPR) exist in many bacterial genomes and have been found to play an important role in adaptive bacterial immunity. Transcription of these arrays gives rise to CRISPR RNAs that direct sequence-specific binding of CRISPR/cas complexes to DNA targets in cells for gene repression or DNA cleavage. The specificity of these complexes allows novel in vivo applications for strain engineering.

Described herein are methods of rational, multiplexed manipulation of chromosomes within open reading frames (e.g., to generate protein libraries) or within multiple genes in any segment of a chromosome, in which various CRISPR systems are used. These methods provide more efficient combinatorial genome engineering than those previously available.

Expanding the multiplexing capabilities of CRISPR presents a current technological challenge and would enable use of these systems to generate rational libraries in high-throughput format. Such advances have broad reaching implications for the fields of metabolic and protein engineering that seek to refactor complex genetic networks for optimal production.

The methods comprise introducing components of the CRISPR system, including CRISPR-associated nuclease Cas9 and a sequence-specific guide RNA (gRNA) into cells, resulting in sequence-directed double stranded breaks using the ability of the CRISPR system to induce such breaks. Components of the CRISPR system, including the CRISPR-associated nuclease Cas9 and a sequence-specific guide RNA (gRNA), can be introduced into cells encoded on one or more vector, such as a plasmid. DNA recombineering cassettes or editing oligonucleotides can be rationally designed to include a desired mutation within a target locus and a mutation in a common location outside of the target locus that may be recognized by the CRISPR system. The described methods can be used for many applications, including altering a pathway of interest.

In one embodiment, the method is a method of genome engineering, comprising: (a) introducing into cells a vector that encodes: (i) an editing cassette that includes a region which is homologous to the target region of the nucleic acid in the cell and includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least one nucleotide relative to the target region, such as a mutation of at least one nucleotide in at least one codon relative to the target region, and a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation; (ii) a promoter; and (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA), the gRNA comprising: (a) a region (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region; and (b) a region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease, thereby producing cells comprising the vector; (b) maintaining cells comprising the vector under conditions under which Cas9 is expressed, wherein Cas9 nuclease is encoded on the vector, encoded on a second vector or encoded on the genome of the cells, resulting in production of cells that comprise the vector and do not comprise the PAM mutation and cells that comprise the vector and the PAM mutation; (c) culturing the product of (b) under conditions appropriate for cell viability, thereby producing viable cells; (d) obtaining viable cells produced in (c); and (e) sequencing the editing oligonucleotide of the vector of at least one viable cell obtained in (d) and identifying the mutation of at least one codon.

In another embodiment, the method is a method of genome engineering by trackable CRISPR enriched recombineering, comprising: (a) introducing into a first population of cells a vector that encodes: (i) at least one editing cassette comprising: (a) a region homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid and comprising a mutation of at least one nucleotide relative to the target region, such as a mutation of at least one nucleotide in at least one codon relative to the target region, and (b) a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation; (ii) at least one promoter; and (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region and (b) a region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease, thereby producing a second population of cells that comprise the vector; (b) maintaining the second population of cells under conditions in which Cas9 nuclease is expressed, wherein the Cas9 nuclease is encoded on the vector, a second vector or on the genome of cells of the second population of cells, resulting in DNA cleavage in cells that do not comprise the PAM mutation and death of such cells; (c) obtaining viable cells produced in (b); and (d) identifying the mutation of at least one codon by sequencing the editing oligonucleotide of the vector of at least one cell of the second population of cells.

Either of the above embodiments can further comprise synthesizing and/or obtaining a population of editing oligonucleotides. Either embodiment can further comprise amplifying the population of editing oligonucleotides. In any of the embodiments, the vector can further comprise a spacer, at least two priming sites or both a spacer and at least two priming sites. In some embodiments, the editing cassette comprises a target region comprising a mutation of at least one codon within 100 nucleotides of the PAM mutation.

Also described is a vector comprising:

-   -   (i) an editing cassette that includes a region which is         homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid in a cell and         includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least         one nucleotide relative to the target region, and a protospacer         adjacent motif (PAM) mutation;     -   (ii) a promoter; and     -   (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region         (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region; and (b) a         region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease.

A further embodiment is a vector comprising:

-   -   (i) an editing cassette that includes a region which is         homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid in a cell and         includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least         one nucleotide in at least one codon relative to the target         region, and a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation;     -   (ii) a promoter; and     -   (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region         (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region; and (b) a         region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease.

A further embodiment is a vector comprising:

-   -   (i) at least one editing cassette comprising: (a) a region         homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid and comprising a         mutation of at least one nucleotide relative to the target         region and (b) a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation;     -   (ii) at least one promoter; and     -   (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region         (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region and (b) a         region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease.

Another embodiment of the vector is a vector comprising:

-   -   (i) at least one editing cassette comprising: (a) a region         homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid and comprising a         mutation of at least one nucleotide in at least one codon         relative to the target region and (b) a protospacer adjacent         motif (PAM) mutation;     -   (ii) at least one promoter; and     -   (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region         (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region and (b) a         region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease.

In any of the embodiments, the vector can further comprise a spacer; at least two priming sites; or a spacer and at least two priming sites. In those vectors in which the mutation is of at least one nucleotide in at least one codon, the editing cassette the mutation can be, for example, within 100 nucleotides of the PAM mutation.

Also described is a library comprising a population of cells produced by the methods described herein. A library of a population of cells can comprise cells having any of the vectors described herein. For example, a population of cells can comprise a vector that comprises:

-   -   (i) an editing cassette that includes a region which is         homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid in a cell and         includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least         one nucleotide relative to the target region, and a protospacer         adjacent motif (PAM) mutation;     -   (ii) a promoter; and     -   (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region         (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region; and (b) a         region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease.

In a further embodiment, a population of cells can comprise a vector that comprises:

-   -   (i) an editing cassette that includes a region which is         homologous to a target region of a nucleic acid in a cell and         includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least         one nucleotide in at least one codon relative to the target         region, and a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation;     -   (ii) a promoter; and     -   (iii) at least one guide RNA (gRNA) comprising: (a) a region         (RNA) complementary to a portion of the target region; and (b) a         region (RNA) that recruits a Cas9 nuclease.

In a further embodiment, the method is a method of CRISPR-assisted rational protein engineering (combinatorial genome engineering), comprising:

-   -   (a) constructing a donor library, which comprises recombinant         DNA, such as recombinant chromosomes or recombinant DNA in         plasmids, by introducing into, such as by co-transformation, a         population of first cells (i) one or more editing         oligonucleotides, such as rationally designed oligonucleotides,         that couple deletion of a first single protospacer adjacent         motif (PAM) with mutation of at least one codon in a gene         adjacent to the PAM (the adjacent gene) and (b) a guide RNA         (gRNA) that targets a nucleotide sequence 5′ of the open reading         frame of a chromosome, thereby producing a donor library that         comprises a population of first cells comprising recombinant         chromosomes having targeted codon mutations;     -   (b) amplifying the donor library constructed in (a), such as by         PCR amplification, of recombinant chromosomes that uses a         synthetic feature from the editing oligonucleotides and         simultaneously incorporates a second PAM deletion (destination         PAM deletion) at the 3′ terminus of the gene, thereby coupling,         such as covalently coupling, targeted codon mutations directly         to the destination PAM deletion and producing a retrieved donor         library carrying the destination PAM deletion and targeted codon         mutations; and     -   (c) introducing (e.g., co-transforming) the donor library         carrying the destination PAM deletion and targeted codon         mutations and a destination gRNA plasmid into a population of         second cells, which are typically a population of naïve cells,         thereby producing a destination library comprising targeted         codon mutations.

The population of first cells and the population of second cells (e.g., a population of naïve cells) are typically a population in which the cells are all of the same type and can be prokaryotes or eukaryotes, such as but not limited to bacteria, mammalian cells, plant cells, insect cells.

In some embodiments, the method further comprises maintaining the destination library under conditions under which protein is produced.

In some embodiments, the first cell expresses a polypeptide with Cas9 nuclease activity. In some embodiments, the polypeptide with Cas9 nuclease activity is expressed under control of an inducible promoter.

In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotides are complementary to a (one, one or more, at least one) target nucleic acid present in the first cell. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotides target more than one target site or locus in the first cell. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence of the editing oligonucleotides [desired codon] comprises one or more substitutions, deletions, insertions or any combination of substitutions, deletions and insertions relative to the target nucleic acid. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotides are rationally designed; in further embodiments, they are produced by random mutagenesis or by using degenerate primer oligonucleotides. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotides are derived from a collection of nucleic acids (library).

In some embodiments, the gRNA is encoded on a plasmid. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotide and the gRNA are introduced into the first cell by transformation, such as by co-transformation of the editing oligonucleotide and the guide (g)RNA. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotide and the gRNA are introduced sequentially into the first cell. In other embodiments, the editing oligonucleotide and the gRNA are introduced simultaneously into the first cell.

In some embodiments, retrieving the donor library further comprises (a) screening cells for incorporation of the editing oligonucleotide and (b) selecting cells that are confirmed to have incorporated the editing oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, retrieving the donor library further comprises processing of the retrieved donor library.

In some embodiments, the destination cell/naïve cell expresses a polypeptide with Cas9 nuclease activity. In some embodiments, the polypeptide with Cas9 nuclease activity is expressed under control of an inducible promoter.

Also described is a method of CRISPR-assisted rational protein engineering, comprising:

-   -   (a) introducing (e.g., co-transforming) (i) synthetic dsDNA         editing cassettes comprising editing oligonucleotides and (ii) a         vector that expresses a guide RNA (gRNA) that targets genomic         sequence just upstream of a gene of interest into a population         of first cells, under conditions under which multiplexed         recombineering and selective enrichment by gRNA of the editing         oligonucleotides occur, thereby producing a donor library;     -   (b) amplifying the donor library with an oligonucleotide that         deletes a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) adjacent to the 3′         end of the gene of interest (destination PAM), thereby producing         an amplified donor library comprising dsDNA editing cassettes         from which the destination PAM has been deleted (with a 3′ PAM         deletion), rational codon mutations, and a P1 site;     -   (c) processing the amplified donor library with an enzyme, such         as a restriction enzyme (e.g., BsaI), to remove the P1 site; and     -   (d) co-transforming a population of naïve cells with the         amplified donor library processed in (c) and destination gRNA,         thereby producing a population of co-transformed cells         comprising dsDNA editing cassettes from which the destination         PAM has been deleted (with a 3′ PAM deletion), rational codon         mutations and destination gRNA.

In all embodiments described, a mutation can be of any type desired, such as one or more insertions, deletions, substitutions or any combination of two or three of the foregoing (e.g., insertion and deletion; insertion and substitution; deletion and substitution; substitution and insertion; insertion, deletion and substitution). Insertions, deletions and substitutions can be of any number of nucleotides. They can be in codons (coding regions) and/or in noncoding regions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A and 1B present an overview of CRISPR assisted rational protein engineering (CARPE). FIG. 1A shows a schematic of donor library construction. Synthetic dsDNA editing cassettes were co-transformed with a vector that expresses a guide RNA (gRNA) targeting the genomic sequence upstream of the gene of interest. The co-transformation generated a donor library via multiplexed recombineering of the editing oligonucleotides, which are selectively enriched by the gRNA. The donor library was then amplified using an oligonucleotide that mutates (deletes) a PAM adjacent to the 3′ end of the gene (destination PAM). FIG. 1B shows a schematic of final protein library generation. The donor library was processed with BsaI to remove the P1 site, and the library of dsDNA cassettes with the 3′PAM deletion and rational codon mutations was co-transformed with the destination gRNA to generate the final protein library.

FIG. 2 presents the DNA sequence from clones from the galK donor library construction confirming incorporation of the P1 feature of the editing oligonucleotide at high efficiency as well as the mutation at the targeted codon position (underlined). The sequence of P1 is provided by SEQ ID NO: 1.

FIG. 3A shows primer design. FIG. 3B shows the expected density relative to the number primers.

FIG. 4A presents linker and construct results. FIG. 4B shows 10 edits related to emulsion PCR based tracking.

FIG. 5 is a schematic of rational protein editing for metabolic engineering.

FIG. 6 is a schematic of the generation of CRISPR enriched rational protein libraries.

FIG. 7 is a schematic of setup and demonstration of CARPE.

FIG. 8 shows strategies for iterative CRISPR co-selection.

FIG. 9 presents a strategy for multiplexed protein engineering using CARPE.

FIG. 10 shows construction of a galK donor library using CARPE.

FIG. 11A shows a schematic of multiplex CRISPR-based editing using CARPE.

FIG. 11B shows a schematic of multiplex CRISPR-based editing using genome engineering by trackable CRISPR enriched recombineering (GEn-TraCER).

FIG. 12 shows a representative GEn-TraCER vector (construct) that includes an editing cassette for editing codon 24 of galK, a promoter, and spacer.

FIG. 13 shows the results of a galK editing using GEn-TraCER. The top panels show DNA sequencing results of the chromosome and vector (plasmid) from cells that had been transformed with the galK codon 24 editing GEn-TraCER vector, indicating the editing cassette (oligonucleotide) on the vector may be sequenced as a “trans-barcode” allowing high efficiency tracking of the desired genomic edit (mutation). The bottom panels show DNA sequencing chromatographs of cells that exhibit the unedited, wild-type phenotype (red). The method allows identification of cells with multiple chromosomes that carry both the wild-type, unedited allele and the edited/mutated allele.

FIGS. 14A-14C show schematics of GEn-TraCER. FIG. 14A shows an overview of the design components. The GEn-TraCER cassettes contain guide RNA (gRNA) sequence(s) to target a specific site in the cell genome and cause dsDNA cleavage. A region of homology complementary to the target region mutates the PAM and other nearby desired sites. Cells that undergo recombination are selectively enriched to high abundance. Sequencing of the GEn-TraCER editing cassette in the vector enables tracking of the genomic edits/mutations. FIG. 14B shows an example editing cassette design for the E. coli galK gene at codon 145. The PAM is deleted with the nearest available PAM mutation that can be made for synonymous change at the nearest available PAM position. This enables mutagenesis with a “silent scar” of 1-2 nucleotides at the PAM deletion site. FIG. 14C shows GEn-TraCER cassettes may be synthesized using array-based synthesis methods, thus enabling parallel synthesis of at least 10⁴-10⁶ cassettes for systematic targeting and simultaneous evaluation of fitness for thousands of mutations on a genome-wide scale.

FIG. 15A shows an overview of GEn-TraCER vectors. FIG. 15B shows a portion of a representative GEn-TraCER for generation of a Y145* mutation in the E. coli galK gene in which the PAM mutation and the codon that is mutated are separated by 17 nucleotides. The nucleic acid sequence of the portion of the representative GEn-TraCER is provided by SEQ ID NO: 28 and the reverse complement is provided by SEQ ID NO: 33.

FIGS. 16A-16C present controls for GEn-TraCER design. FIG. 16A shows the effect of the size of the editing cassette on efficiency of the method. FIG. 16B shows the effect of the distance between the PAM mutation/deletion and the desired mutation on efficiency of the method. FIG. 16C shows the effect of the presence or absence of the MutS system on efficiency of the method.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Bacterial and archaeal CRISPR systems have emerged as powerful new tools for precision genome editing. The type-II CRISPR system from Streptococcus pyogenes (S. pyogenes) has been particularly well characterized in vitro, and simple design rules have been established for reprogramming its double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) binding activity (Jinek et al. Science (2012) 337(6096): 816-821). Use of CRISPR-mediated genome editing methods has rapidly accumulated in the literature in a wide variety of organisms, including bacteria (Cong et al. Science (2013) 339 (6121): 819-823), Saccharomyces cerevisiae (DiCarlo et al. Nucleic Acids Res. (2013) 41:4336-4343), Caenorhabditis elegans (Waaijers et al. Genetics (2013) 195: 1187-1191) and various mammalian cell lines (Cong et al. Science (2013) 339 (6121): 819-823; Wang et al. Cell (2013) 153:910-918). Like other endonuclease based genome editing technologies, such as zinc-finger nucleases (ZFNs), homing nucleases and TALENS, the ability of CRISPR systems to mediate precise genome editing stems from the highly specific nature of target recognition. For example, the type-I CRISPR system from Escherichia coli and the S. pyogenes system require perfect complementarity between the CRISPR RNA (crRNA) and a 14-15 base pair recognition target, suggesting that the immune functions of CRISPR systems are naturally employed (Jinek et al. Science (2012) 337(6096): 816-821; Brouns et al. Science (2008) 321:960-964; Semenova et al. PNAS (2011) 108:10098-10103).

Described herein are methods for genome editing that employ an endonuclease, such as the Cas9 nuclease encoded by a cas9 gene, to perform directed genome evolution/produce changes (deletions, substitutions, additions) in DNA, such as genomic DNA. The cas9 gene can be obtained from any source, such as from a bacterium, such as the bacterium S. pyogenes. The nucleic acid sequence of the cas9 and/or amino acid sequence of Cas9 may be mutated, relative to the sequence of a naturally occurring cas9 and/or Cas9; mutations can be, for example, one or more insertions, deletions, substitutions or any combination of two or three of the foregoing. In such embodiments, the resulting mutated Cas9 may have enhanced or reduced nuclease activity relative to the naturally occurring Cas9.

FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 11A present a CRISPR-mediate genome editing method referred to as CRISPR Assisted Rational Protein Engineering (CARPE). CARPE is a two stage construction process which relies on generation of “donor” and “destination” libraries that incorporate directed mutations from single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) or double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) editing cassettes directly into the genome. In the first stage of donor construction (FIG. 1A), rationally designed editing oligos are cotransformed into cells with a guide RNA (gRNA) that hybridizes to/targets a target DNA sequence, such as a sequence 5′ of an open reading frame or other sequence of interest. A key innovation of CARPE is in the design of the editing oligonucleotides that couple deletion or mutation of a single protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) with the mutation of one or more desired codons in the adjacent gene, thereby enabling generation of the entire donor library in a single transformation. The donor library is then retrieved by amplification of the recombinant chromosomes, e.g. by a PCR reaction, using a synthetic feature from the editing oligonucleotide; a second PAM deletion or mutation is simultaneously incorporated at the 3′ terminus of the gene. This approach thus covalently couples the codon targeted mutations directly to a PAM deletion. In the second stage of CARPE (FIG. 1B) the PCR amplified donor libraries carrying the destination PAM deletion/mutation and the targeted mutations (desired mutation(s) of one or more nucleotides, such as one or more nucleotides in one or more codons) are co-transformed into naïve cells with a destination gRNA vector to generate a population of cells that express a rationally designed protein library.

In the CRISPR system, the CRISPR trans-activating (tracrRNA) and the spacer RNA (crRNA) guide selection of a target region. As used herein, a target region refers to any locus in the nucleic acid of a cell or population of cells in which a mutation of at least one nucleotide, such as a mutation of at least one nucleotide in at least one codon (one or more codons), is desired. The target region can be, for example, a genomic locus (target genomic sequence) or extrachromosomal locus. The tracrRNA and crRNA can be expressed as a single, chimeric RNA molecule, referred to as a single-guide RNA, guide RNA, or gRNA. The nucleic acid sequence of the gRNA comprises a first nucleic acid sequence, also referred to as a first region, that is complementary to a region of the target region and a second nucleic acid sequence, also referred to a second region, that forms a stem loop structure and functions to recruit Cas9 to the target region. In some embodiments, the first region of the gRNA is complementary to a region upstream of the target genomic sequence. In some embodiments, the first region of the gRNA is complementary to at least a portion of the target region. The first region of the gRNA can be completely complementary (100% complementary) to the target genomic sequence or include one or more mismatches, provided that it is sufficiently complementary to the target genomic sequence to specifically hybridize/guide and recruit Cas9. In some embodiments, the first region of the gRNA is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or at least 30 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the first region of the gRNA is at least 20 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments the stem loop structure that is formed by the second nucleic acid sequence is at least 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 7, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, or 100 nucleotides in length. In specific embodiments, the stem loop structure is from 80 to 90 or 82 to 85 nucleotides in length and, in further specific embodiments, the second region of the gRNA that forms a stem loop structure is 83 nucleotides in length.

In some embodiments, the sequence of the gRNA (of the donor library) that is introduced into the first cell using the CARPE method is the same as the sequence of the gRNA (of the destination library) that is introduced into the second/naïve cell. In some embodiments, more than one gRNA is introduced into the population of first cells and/or the population of second cells. In some embodiments, the more than one gRNA molecules comprise first nucleic acid sequences that are complementary to more than one target region.

In the CARPE method, double stranded DNA cassettes, also referred to as editing oligonucleotides, for use in the described methods can be obtained or derived from many sources. For example, in some embodiments, the dsDNA cassettes are derived from a nucleic acid library that has been diversified by nonhomologous random recombination (NRR); such a library is referred to as an NRR library. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotides are synthesized, for example by array-based synthesis. The length of the editing oligonucleotide may be dependent on the method used in obtaining the editing oligonucleotide. In some embodiments, the editing oligonucleotide is approximately 50-200 nucleotides, 75-150 nucleotides, or between 80-120 nucleotides in length.

An editing oligonucleotide includes (a) a region that is homologous to a target region of the nucleic acid of the cell and includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least one codon relative to the target region, and (b) a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation. The PAM mutation may be any insertion, deletion or substitution of one or more nucleotides that mutates the sequence of the PAM such that it is no longer recognized by the CRISPR system. A cell that comprises such a PAM mutation may be said to be “immune” to CRISPR-mediated killing. The desired mutation relative to the sequence of the target region may be an insertion, deletion, and/or substitution of one or more nucleotides at at least one codon of the target region.

The CARPE method is described below with reference to a bacterial gene for purposes of illustration only. The methods may be applied to any gene(s) of interest, including genes from any prokaryote including bacteria and archaea, or any eukaryote, including yeast and mammalian (including human) genes. The CARPE method was carried out on the galK gene in the E. coli genome, in part due to the availability of activity assays for this gene. The method was carried out using BW23115 parental strains and the pSIM5 vector (Datta et al. Gene (2008) 379:109-115) to mediate recombineering. The cas9 gene was cloned into the pBTBX-2 backbone under the control of a pBAD promoter to allow control of the cleavage activity by addition of arabinose. Assessment of the ability to selectively incorporate synthetic dsDNA cassettes (127 bp) was carried out using dsDNA cassettes from NNK libraries that were constructed from degenerate primers and/or from rationally designed oligonucleotides (oligos) synthesized as part of a 27,000 member library via microarray technology. In both cases, the oligonucleotides were designed to mutate the active site residues of the galK gene product. Highly efficient recovery of donor strain libraries was verified based on changes in the amplicon sizes obtained with primers directed at the galK locus. Sequencing of these colony PCR products from the NRR libraries indicated that the synthetic priming site (P1) from the dsDNA cassettes was incorporated with about 90-100% efficiency. This indicated that these libraries can be generated with high efficiency without reliance on the error prone mutS knockout strains that have typically been used in other recombineering based editing approaches (Costantino et al. PNAS (2003) 100:15748-15753; Wang et al. Nature (2009) 460:894-898). There was a drop in the efficiency of the codon mutations (about 20%), which may be due to mutS corrections during allelic replacement. Preliminary assessment of clones in the destination libraries indicated that the final codon editing efficiency was about 10% when both phases of construction are carried out in the mutS⁺ background.

Comparison with other recently-published protocols for co-selectable editing was done, using alternative protocols that do not covalently link the PAM and codon mutations, but instead rely on their proximity to one another during replication (Wang et al. Nat. Methods (2012) 9:591-593). In these non-covalent experiments the same editing oligos as above were used and efforts were made to co-select for their insertion using the ssDNA oligos that target the same donor/destination PAM sites. Colony screening of the resultant mutants reveals high efficiency in recovery of the PAM mutants. However, there does not appear to be a strong co-selection for insertion of dsDNA editing cassettes. This may be due to large differences in the relative recombineering efficiencies of the PAM deletion oligonucleotides and the editing cassettes which generate sizable chromosomal deletions.

The ability to improve final editing efficiencies of the CARPE method can be assessed, such as by carrying out donor construction in mutS deficient strains before transferring to a wild-type donor strain in an effort to prevent loss of mutations during the donor construction phase. In addition, the generality of the CARPE method can be assessed, such as by utilizing CARPE on a number of essential genes, including dxs, metA, and folA. Essential genes have been effectively targeted using gRNA design strategies described. Results also indicate that despite the gene disruption that occurs during the donor library creation, the donor libraries can be effectively constructed and retrieved within 1-3 hours post recombineering.

Also provided herein are methods for trackable, precision genome editing using a CRISPR-mediated system referred to as Genome Engineering by Trackable CRISPR Enriched Recombineering (GEn-TraCER). The GEn-TraCER methods achieve high efficiency editing/mutating using a single vector that encodes both the editing cassette and gRNA. When used with parallel DNA synthesis, such as array-based DNA synthesis, GEN-TraCER provides single step generation of thousands of precision edits/mutations and makes it possible to map the mutation by sequencing the editing cassette on the vector, rather than by sequencing of the genome of the cell (genomic DNA). The methods have broad utility in protein and genome engineering applications, as well as for reconstruction of mutations, such as mutations identified in laboratory evolution experiments.

The GEn-TraCER methods and vectors combine an editing cassette, which includes a desired mutation and a PAM mutation, with a gene encoding a gRNA on a single vector, which makes it possible to generate a library of mutations in a single reaction. As shown in FIG. 11B, the method involves introducing a vector comprising an editing cassette that includes the desired mutation and the PAM mutation into a cell or population of cells. In some embodiments, the cells into which the vector is introduced also encodes Cas9. In some embodiments, a gene encoding Cas9 is subsequently introduced into the cell or population of cells. Expression of the CRISPR system, including Cas9 and the gRNA, in the cell or cell population is activated; the gRNA recruits Cas9 to the target region, where dsDNA cleavage occurs. Without wishing to be bound by any particular theory, the homologous region of the editing cassette complementary to the target region mutates the PAM and the one or more codon of the target region. Cells of the population of cells that did not integrate the PAM mutation undergo unedited cell death due to Cas9-mediated dsDNA cleavage. Cells of the population of cells that integrate the PAM mutation do not undergo cell death; they remain viable and are selectively enriched to high abundance. Viable cells are obtained and provide a library of targeted mutations.

The method of trackable genome editing using GEn-TraCER comprises: (a) introducing a vector that encodes at least one editing cassette, a promoter, and at least one gRNA into a cell or population of cells, thereby producing a cell or population of cells comprising the vector (a second population of cells); (b) maintaining the second population of cells under conditions in which Cas9 is expressed, wherein the Cas9 nuclease is encoded on the vector, a second vector or on the genome of cells of the second population of cells, resulting in DNA cleavage and death of cells of the second population of cells that do not comprise the PAM mutation, whereas cells of the second population of cells that comprise the PAM mutation are viable; (c) obtaining viable cells; and (d) sequencing the editing cassette of the vector in at least one cell of the second population of cells to identify the mutation of at least one codon.

In some embodiments, a separate vector encoding cas9 is also introduced into the cell or population of cells. Introducing a vector into a cell or population of cells can be performed using any method or technique known in the art. For example, vectors can be introduced by standard protocols, such as transformation including chemical transformation and electroporation, transduction and particle bombardment.

An editing cassette includes (a) a region, which recognizes (hybridizes to) a target region of a nucleic acid in a cell or population of cells, is homologous to the target region of the nucleic acid of the cell and includes a mutation (referred to a desired mutation) of at least one nucleotide in at least one codon relative to the target region, and (b) a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation. The PAM mutation may be any insertion, deletion or substitution of one or more nucleotides that mutates the sequence of the PAM such that the mutated PAM (PAM mutation) is not recognized by the CRISPR system. A cell that comprises such as a PAM mutation may be said to be “immune” to CRISPR-mediated killing. The desired mutation relative to the sequence of the target region may be an insertion, deletion, and/or substitution of one or more nucleotides at at least one codon of the target region. In some embodiments, the distance between the PAM mutation and the desired mutation is at least 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30 nucleotides on the editing cassette. In some embodiments, the PAM mutation is located at least 9 nucleotides from the end of the editing cassette. In some embodiments, the desired mutation is located at least 9 nucleotides from the end of the editing cassette.

In some embodiments, the desired mutation relative to the sequence of the target region is an insertion of a nucleic acid sequence. The nucleic acid sequence inserted into the target region may be of any length. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequence inserted is at least 50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 750, 800, 850, 900, 950, 1000, 1100, 1200, 1300, 1400, 1500, 1600, 1700, 1800, 1900, or at least 2000 nucleotides in length. In embodiments in which a nucleic acid sequence is inserted into the target region, the editing cassette comprises a region that is at least 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, or at least 60 nucleotides in length and homologous to the target region.

The term “GEn-TraCER cassette” may be used to refer to an editing cassette, promoter, spacer sequence and at least a portion of a gene encoding a gRNA. In some embodiments, portion of the gene encoding the gRNA on the GEn-TraCER cassette encodes the portion of the gRNA that is complementary to the target region. In some embodiments, the portion of the gRNA that is complementary to the target region is at least 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, or at least 30 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the portion of the gRNA that is complementary to the target region is 24 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the GEn-TraCER cassette further comprising at least two priming sites. In some embodiments, the priming sites may be used to amplify the GEn-TraCER cassette, for example by PCR. In some embodiments, the portion of the gRNA is that complementary to the target region is used as a priming site.

In the GEn-TraCER method, editing cassettes and GEn-TraCER cassettes for use in the described methods can be obtained or derived from many sources. For example, in some embodiments, the editing cassette is synthesized, for example by array-based synthesis. In some embodiments, the GEn-TraCER cassette is synthesized, for example by array-based synthesis. The length of the editing cassette and/or GEn-TraCER cassette may be dependent on the method used in obtaining the editing cassette and/or the GEn-TraCER cassette. In some embodiments, the editing cassette is approximately 50-300 nucleotides, 75-200 nucleotides, or between 80-120 nucleotides in length. In some embodiments, the GEn-TraCER cassette is approximately 50-300 nucleotides, 75-200 nucleotides, or between 80-120 nucleotides in length.

In some embodiments, the method also involves obtaining GEn-TraCER cassettes, for example by array-based synthesis, and constructing the vector. Methods of constructing a vector will be known to one ordinary skill in the art and may involve ligating the GEn-TraCER cassette into a vector. In some embodiments, the GEn-TraCER cassettes or a subset (pool) of the GEn-TraCER cassettes are amplified prior to construction of the vector, for example by PCR.

The cell or population of cells comprising the vector and also encoding Cas9 are maintained or cultured under conditions in which Cas9 is expressed. Cas9 expression can be controlled. The methods described herein involve maintaining cells under conditions in which Cas9 expression is activated, resulting in production of Cas9. Specific conditions under which Cas9 is expressed will depend on factors, such as the nature of the promoter used to regulate Cas9 expression. In some embodiments, Cas9 expression is induced in the presence of an inducer molecule, such as arabinose. When the cell or population of cells comprising Cas9-encoding DNA are in the presence of the inducer molecule, expression of Cas9 occurs. In some embodiments, Cas9 expression is repressed in the presence of a repressor molecule. When the cell or population of cells comprising Cas9-encoding DNA are in the absence of a molecule that represses expression of Cas9, expression of Cas9 occurs.

Cells of the population of cells that remain viable are obtained or separated from the cells that undergo unedited cell death as a result of Cas9-mediated killing; this can be done, for example, by spreading the population of cells on culture surface, allowing growth of the viable cells, which are then available for assessment.

The desired mutation coupled to the PAM mutation is trackable using the GEn-TraCER method by sequencing the editing cassette on the vector in viable cells (cells that integrate the PAM mutation) of the population. This allows for facile identification of the mutation without the need to sequence the genome of the cell. The methods involve sequencing of the editing cassette to identify the mutation of one of more codon. Sequencing can be performed of the editing cassette as a component of the vector or after its separation from the vector and, optionally, amplification.

Sequencing may be performed using any sequencing method known in the art, such as by Sanger sequencing.

The methods described herein can be carried out in any type of cell in which the CRISPR system can function (e.g., target and cleave DNA), including prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. In some embodiments the cell is a bacterial cell, such as Escherichia spp. (e.g., E. coli). In other embodiments, the cell is a fungal cell, such as a yeast cell, e.g., Saccharomyces spp. In other embodiments, the cell is an algal cell, a plant cell, an insect cell, or a mammalian cell, including a human cell.

A “vector” is any of a variety of nucleic acids that comprise a desired sequence or sequences to be delivered to or expressed in a cell. The desired sequence(s) can be included in a vector, such as by restriction and ligation or by recombination. Vectors are typically composed of DNA, although RNA vectors are also available. Vectors include, but are not limited to: plasmids, fosmids, phagemids, virus genomes and artificial chromosomes.

Vectors useful in the GEN-TraCER method comprise at least one editing cassette as described herein, a promoter, and at least one gene encoding a gRNA. In some embodiments more than one editing cassette (for example 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more editing cassettes) are included on the vector. In some embodiments, the more than one editing cassettes are homologous with different target regions (e.g., there are different editing cassettes, each of which is homologous with a different target region). Alternatively or in addition, the vector may include more than one gene encoding more than one gRNA, (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 or more gRNAs). In some embodiments, the more than one gRNAs contain regions that are complementary to a portion of different target regions (e.g., there are different gRNAs, each of which is complementary to a portion of a different target region).

In some embodiments, a GEn-TraCER cassette comprising at least one editing cassette, a promoter and a gene encoding a portion of a gRNA are ligated into a vector that encodes another portion of a gRNA. Upon ligation, the portion of the gRNA from the GEn-TraCER cassette and the other portion of the gRNA are ligated and form a functional gRNA.

The promoter and the gene encoding the gRNA are operably linked. In some embodiments, the methods involve introduction of a second vector encoding Cas9. In such embodiments, the vector may further comprise one or more promoters operably linked to a gene encoding Cas9. As used herein, “operably” linked means the promoter affects or regulates transcription of the DNA encoding a gene, such as the gene encoding the gRNA or the gene encoding Cas9. The promoter can be a native promoter (a promoter present in the cell into which the vector is introduced). In some embodiments, the promoter is an inducible or repressible promoter (the promoter is regulated allowing for inducible or repressible transcription of a gene, such as the gene encoding the gRNA or the gene encoding Cas9), such as promoters that are regulated by the presence or absence of a molecule (e.g., an inducer or a repressor). The nature of the promoter needed for expression of the gRNA may vary based on the species or cell type and will be recognized by one of ordinary skill in the art.

In some embodiments, the method comprises introducing a separate vector encoding Cas9 into the cell or population of cells before or at the same time as introduction of the vector comprising at least one editing cassette as described herein, a promoter and at least one gRNA. In some embodiments, the gene encoding Cas9 is integrated into the genome of the cell or population of cells. The Cas9-encoding DNA can be integrated into the cellular genome before introduction of the vector comprising at least one editing cassette as described herein, a promoter, and at least one gRNA or after introduction of the vector comprising at least one editing cassette as described herein, a promoter, and at least one gRNA. Alternatively, a nucleic acid molecule, such as DNA-encoding Cas9, can be expressed from DNA integrated into the genome. In some embodiments, the gene encoding Cas9 is integrated into the genome of the cell.

Vectors useful in the GEn-TraCER methods described herein may further comprise a spacer sequence, two or more priming sites or both a spacer sequence and two or more priming sites. In some embodiments, the presence of priming sites flanking the GEn-TraCER cassette allows amplification of the editing cassette, promoter and gRNA nucleic acid sequences.

EXAMPLES Example 1: Using the CARPE Method to Edit galK

The CARPE approach was-carried out on the galactokinase gene, galK, in the E. coli genome; there are many available assays to assess the activity of the gene product. The experiments were carried out using E. coli BW23115 parental strain and the pSIM5 vector (Datta et al. Gene (2008) 379:109-115) to mediate recombineering. The gene encoding Cas9 was cloned into the pBTBX-2 backbone under the control of a pBAD promoter to allow control of the Cas9 cleavage activity by addition of arabinose to the culture medium.

First, the ability to selectively incorporate of synthetic dsDNA cassettes (127 bp) was tested. The synthetic dsDNA cassettes were derived from NNR libraries that were constructed from degenerate primers or from rationally designed oligos synthesized as part of a 27,000 member library via microarray technology. In both cases, the oligonucleotides were designed to mutate the active site residues of the galK gene product as well as contain the synthetic priming site, P1 (SEQ ID NO: 1). Highly efficient recovery of donor strain libraries was verified based on changes in the amplicon sizes obtained by colony PCR using primers directed at the galK locus. Sequencing of the colony PCR products from the NNR libraries indicated that the synthetic priming site (P1) from the dsDNA cassettes was incorporated with about 90-100% efficiency (FIG. 2). This surprising and unexpected result suggests that libraries can be generated with high efficiency without reliance on the error prone mutS-deficient strains that have typically been used in other recombineering-based editing approaches (Constantino, et al. PNAS (2003) 100:15748-15753; Wang et al. Nature (2009) 460: 894-898). However, there was a drop in the efficiency of the codon mutations (about 20%), which may be due to correction by MutS during allelic replacement. In this work, the final codon editing efficiency was about 10% when both phases of construction were carried out in the mutS+ background.

To enhance the final editing efficiencies and generality of the CARPE method, the donor construction may be performed in mutS-deficient strains before transferring to a mutS+ donor strain in an effort to prevent loss of mutations during the donor construction phase.

Example 2: Using the CARPE Method to Target Essential Genes

In order to test the generality of the CARPE approach, the method was used, as described above, on a number of essential genes, including dxs, metA, and folA. Essential genes can be targeted using the gRNA design strategies (FIG. 3).

Data from CARPE experiments targeting the dxs gene also suggest that despite the gene disruption that occurs during the donor library creation, it is possible to effectively construct and retrieve the donor libraries within 1-3 hours post recombineering.

Example 3: Using the CARPE Method to Modulate Production of Isopentenol

The hunt for better biofuels for industrial manufacturing via bacterial production requires the ability to perform state of the art genome design, engineering, and screening for the desired product. Previously, we demonstrated the ability to individually modify the expression levels of every gene in the E. coli genome (Warner et al. Nat. Biotechnol (2010) 28:856-862). This method, termed trackable multiplex recombineering (TRMR), produced a library of about 8000 genomically-modified cells (˜4000 over-expressed genes and ˜4000 knocked down genes). This library was later screened under different conditions, which enabled deeper understanding of gene products' activities and resulted in better performing strains under these selections. TRMR allowed modification of protein expression for two levels (overexpressed and knocked down) but did not enable the modification of the open reading frame (ORF). Here, we aim to produce large libraries of ORF modifications and engineering whole metabolic pathways for the optimal production of biofuels.

A major difficulty in producing such libraries, which are rationally designed (in contrast to random mutagenesis), is the insertion efficiency of the desired mutations into the target cells. Recombineering, the canonical method for genome modifications in E. coli, uses recombinant genes from Lambda phage to facilitate the insertion of foreign DNA into the host genome. However, this process suffers from low efficiencies and may be overcome either by adding an antibiotic resistance gene followed by selection (as in TRMR), or by recursively inducing recombination events (i.e., by MAGE (Wang et al. Nature (2008) 460:894-898). The CARPE method described herein increases the recombineering efficiency involving the use of the CRISPR system to remove all non-recombinant cells from the population. CRISPR is a recently discovered RNA-based, adaptive defense mechanism of bacteria and archaea against invading phages and plasmids (Bhaya et al. Ann. Rev. of Genetics (2011) 45:273-297). This system underwent massive engineering to enable sequence-directed double strand breaks using two plasmids; one plasmid coding for the CRISPR-associated nuclease Cas9 and the second plasmid coding for the sequence-specific guide RNA (gRNA) that guides Cas9 to its unique location (Qi et al. Cell (2013) 45:273-297). The CARPE method utilizes the CRISPR system's ability to induce DNA breaks, and consequently cell death, in a sequence-dependent manner. We produced DNA recombineering cassettes that, in addition to the desired mutation within the ORF, include a mutation in a common location outside of the open reading frame of the gene which is targeted by the CRISPR machinery. This approach of linking/coupling desired mutations with the avoidance from CRISPR-mediated death, due to the PAM mutation/deletion, enables dramatic enrichment of the engineered cells within the total population of cells.

The method is further demonstrated using the DXS pathway. The DSX pathway results in the production of isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) which results in the biosynthesis of terpenes and terpenoids. Interestingly, IPP can also be precursor of lycopene or isopentenol, given the addition of the required genes. While lycopene renders the bacterial colonies red, and hence is easily screenable, isopentenol is considered to be a ‘second generation’ biofuel with higher energy density and lower water miscibility than ethanol. Three proteins were selected for engineering: 1) DSX, the first and the rate-limiting enzyme of the pathway, 2) IspB, which diverts the metabolic flux from the DXS pathway, and 3) NudF, which has been shown to convert IPP to isopentenol in both E. coli and B. subtilis (Withers et al. App. Environ. Microbiol (2007) 73: 6277-6283; Zheng et al. Biotechnol. for biofuels (2013)6:57). Mutations in the genes encoding DXS and IspB will be screened for increased lycopene production with a new image analysis tool developed for colony color quantification. NudF activity will be assayed directly by measuring isopentenol levels by GC/MS and indirectly by isopentenol auxotrophic cells that will serve as biosensors. This method provides the ability to rationally engineer large mutational libraries into the E. coli genome with high accuracy and efficiency and a strain that produces high yield of isopentenol.

Example 4: Using the GEn-TraCER Method to Edit galK

The GEn-TraCER method was used to edit the galK gene, which has served as a model system for recombineering in E. coli (Yu et al. 2000). The first GEn-TraCER cassettes constructed were designed to introduce a stop codon in place of an inframe PAM at codon 24 of galK, referred to as galK_Q24 (FIG. 12). Constructs and vectors were designed using a custom python script to generate the requisite mutations in high throughput.

Control cassettes were cloned into the gRNA vector described by Qi et al. Cell (2013) using a the Circular Polymerase cloning (CPEC) method. The backbone was linearized with the following primers: CCAGAAATCATCCTTAGCGAAAGCTAAGGAT (SEQ ID NO: 29) and GTTTTAGAGCTAGAAATAGCAAGTTAAAATAAGGCT (SEQ ID NO: 30).

GenTRACER cassettes were ordered as gblocks and amplified using the following primers: ATCACGAGGCAGAATTTCAGATAAAAAAAATCCTTAGCTTTCGCTAAGGATGATTTCTG G (SEQ ID NO: 31), ACTTTTTCAAGTTGATAACGGACTAGCCTTATTTTAACTTGCTATTTCTAGCTCTAAAAC (SEQ ID NO: 32).

The components were stitched together using CPEC and transformed into E. coli to generate the vectors. This procedure is to be performed in multiplex using the pooled oligonucleotide libraries with cloning efficiencies on the order of 10⁴-10⁵ CFU/μg.

E. coli MG1655 cells carrying pSIM5 (lambda-RED plasmid) and the X2-cas9 plasmid were grown to mid log phase (0.4-0.7 OD) at 30° C. in LB with 50 μg/mL kanamycin and 34 μg/mL chloramphenicol. The recombineering functions of the pSIM5 vector were induced at 42° C. for 15 min and then placed on ice for 10 min. Cells were then made electrocompetent by pelleting and washing 2× with 10 mL chilled H2O. Cells were transformed with 100 ng of a GEn-TraCER plasmid (also encoding carbenicillin resistance) and recovered for 3 hrs at 37° C. 50-100 μL of cells were plated to the appropriate media containing 50 μg/mL kanamycin and 100 μg/ml carbenecillin to selectively enrich for the CRISPR-edited strains. Editing efficiencies for the galK gene were calculated using red/white screening on MacConkey agar supplemented with galactose.

Based on a screening on MacConkey agar editing efficiencies of ˜100% were observed with the galK_Q24* design. Interestingly, unlike oligo-mediated recombineering methods that require mismatch repair knockouts to achieve high efficiency (Li et al. 2003; Sawitzke et al. 2011; Wang et al. 2011), there was no effect in strains with or without the mismatch repair machinery intact.

Chromosome and vector sequences were then verified by Sanger sequencing.

As anticipated the designed mutation in the vector was mirrored on the chromosome (FIG. 13) indicating that the mutation was present in both locations and that the plasmid serves as a transacting barcode (trans-barcode) or record of the genome edit.

The design was adapted for rational mutagenesis of protein coding frames on a genome scale by generating “silent selectable scars” that consist of synonymous PAM mutation (FIG. 14B, ΔPAM) to “immunize” the cell against Cas9-mediated cleavage but leave the translation product unperturbed. We reasoned that silent scars may allow co-selection for nearby edits at a codon or other feature of interest with high efficiency. The effects of the homology arm length and the distance between the PAM mutation/deletion and the desired mutation in galK were assessed and the efficiencies compared (FIG. 16B). A significant increase in mutational efficiency at the galK position 145 was observed when the homology arm length was extended from 80 to 100 nucleotides (˜5% and 45%, respectively) with identical PAM edits.

Example 5: Using the GEn-TraCER Method to Reconstruct Mutations

The GEn-TraCER approach was extended to a genomic scale using a custom automated design software that allows targeting of sites around the genome with a simple user input definition. The approach was tested by reconstructing all of non-synonymous point mutations from a recently reported study of thermal adaptation in E. coli (Tenaillon et al. 2012). This study characterized the complete set of mutations that occurred in 115 isolates from independently propagated strains. This dataset provides a diverse source of mutations whose individual fitness effects shed further light on the mechanistic underpinnings of this complex phenotype. Each of these mutations were reconstructed with a 2-fold redundancy in the codon usage and ΔPAM, where possible, to enable statistical correction for both the PAM and target codon mutations in downstream fitness analysis.

Example 6: Using the GEn-TraCER Method to Modulate Genetic Interactions

A promoter rewiring library is generated by integrating a promoter that is dynamically regulated by an environmental cue (oxygen level, carbon source, stress) upstream of each gene in the E. coli genome. Using the GEn-TraCER method, strains are generated with rewired genotypes that may be beneficial, for example for tolerance to chemicals of interest for production. 

What is claimed is:
 1. A method of generating a library of cells having genome edits in one or more target regions, said method comprising: (a) contacting cells with a plurality of oligonucleotides, wherein the oligonucleotides comprise: (i) a nucleic acid encoding a sequence targeting a target region, (ii) a change in sequence relative to the target region, (iii) a selectable marker; and (iv) a barcode, wherein the barcode identifies the change in sequence relative to the target region; and (b) creating the genome edits using a nuclease compatible with said oligonucleotides; thereby generating a library of cells having genome edits.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the selectable marker comprises a PAM mutation.
 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the sequence targeting said target region is a guide RNA.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the sequence targeting said target region is a chimeric guide RNA.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the sequence targeting said target region comprises a crRNA and a tracrRNA.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the cells are prokaryotic cells.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the cells are eukaryotic cells.
 8. The method of claim 1, where in the change in sequence relative to the target region is within a coding region of the target region.
 9. The method of claim 1, where in the change in sequence relative to the target region is within a non-coding region of the target region.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the library comprises cells with a change in sequence in at least two different target regions.
 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the library comprises cells with different changes within the same target region.
 12. A method of generating a library of cells with genome edits, said method comprising: (a) obtaining a library of oligonucleotides, wherein the oligonucleotides comprise (i) a nucleic acid encoding a sequence targeting a target region, (ii) a change in the sequence relative to the target region; (iii) a selectable marker; and (iv) a barcode, wherein the barcode identifies change in the sequence relative to the target region; and (b) introducing the library of oligonucleotides into cells by transformation, (c) enriching for transformed cells using a nuclease compatible with said nucleic acid encoding a sequence targeting a target region, (d) growing the enriched transformed cells, thereby generating the library of cells with genome edits.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the target region is in a non-coding region.
 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the target region is in a coding region.
 15. The method of claim 12, wherein the sequence change is in at least one codon of the target region.
 16. The method of claim 12, wherein the selectable marker comprises a protospacer adjacent motif (PAM) mutation.
 17. The method of claim 12, wherein the cells are prokaryotic cells.
 18. The method of claim 12, wherein the cells are eukaryotic cells.
 19. The method of claim 12, wherein the library comprises cells with a change in sequence in at least two different target regions.
 20. The method of claim 12, wherein the library comprises cells with different changes within the same target region. 